Racism is usually equated with hostility
and prejudice. The media encourages this simplistic picture by linking
it to the racial abuse and violent behaviour of neofascist parties. Their
members' antics are a product of frustration with their own inadequacies
- projected onto a visible minority. In general, however, fascists have
little power and influence and the perception of racism as obvious prejudicial
opinions and attitudes obscures subtler, more insidious forms of discrimination
(Sivanandan, 1991). Racism cannot be reduced to 'human nature and individual
fallibility' which leave the state, politics, and 'major structural aspects
of contemporary life out of focus' (Husband, 1991: 50).
Howitt and Owusu-Bempah (1990: 397)
point to a 'new racism' characterised as 'being a far more complex and
subtle form of racism which, superficially, lacks the traditional emotive
denigration of black people'. They conclude that 'seeing racism solely
as a form of interpersonal antagonism not only sanitises it, but prevents
us from defining ourselves as racist if we do not feel racial hatred'.
Hence stereotypes appear which are not seen as 'prejudiced':
..Asian women are
seen as "passive" or "hysterical" or subject to oppressive practices within
the family; there is the stereotype of the strong dominant Afro-Caribbean
woman is the head of the household; and the description of the over-aggressive
African woman (Sayal, 1990: 24).
The problem is not so much racial
discrimination as racial disadvantage. This arises from the inability of
the liberal-minded middle classes to perceive the structural advantages
which contribute to their own success. Dominelli (1992: 165) argues that:
"it is the subtle presence of racism
in our normal activities, coupled with our failure to make the connections
between the personal, institutional and cultural levels of racism which
make it so hard for white people to recognise its existence in their particular
behaviour and combat it effectively".
Ben-Tovim et al. (1992) criticise
the ideology of 'colour blindness' which:
* Fails to appreciate
the pervasiveness of racism
* Confuses racism with
urban deprivation and class inequality
* Is conveniently
compatible with a range of political opinions
* Accommodates
the 'universalistic ideologies and practices of public administration'
* Denies racism
purely as overt and deliberate discrimination;
They note some rationalizations for
ignoring other forms of racism:
- that raising the question
of racism is divisive;
- that the problems of the
ethnic minorities are the same as those of the
white population, or
the working class, the inner cities, and so on.
Braham et al. (1992: 106) suggest
that widening our definition of discrimination to include indirect or 'institutional'
racism gives a much better understanding of the barriers faced by ethnic
minorities (see key concept 9.8). Institutional racism is virtually unrecognised
in commercial organizations but it is an extremely contentious issue in
the public sector - for instance social work and housing. At one extreme,
there are those obsessed with race issues, ignoring other forms of disadvantage.
At the other, those who consider that 'there is no such thing as institutional
racism and that those who say there is are totalitarian monsters, running
amok, reducing nice white people to tears' (Alibhai-Brown, The Independent,11th
August,1993).
|
KEY CONCEPT 9.8
INSTITUTIONALIZED RACISM
Institutionalised racism is an indirect
and largely invisible process which can be compared with cloning and the
glass ceiling. It is a term encompassing the, often unintentional, barriers
and selection/promotion procedures which serve to disadvantage members
of ethnic minority groups. |
Braham et al. caution that it is
important to acknowledge the wide range of practices involved - some much
more obvious than others. Rejecting the proposition that all institutions
are uniformly racist, they argue that 'the kind of procedures...that disadvantage
black people also disadvantage other groups'. We noted in chapter 8 that
the process of cloning is focused on replicating the people in power rather
than discriminating against any particular group.
The British Civil Service is a good
illustration of the existence and strength of institutionalized disadvantage.
A Cabinet Office report in 1995 concluded that it was a bastion of the
white, male middle-classes, making it difficult for ethnic minorities to
progress into its upper reaches. The report concluded that the main barriers
to career development were:
* Prejudice and/or ignorance among line managers.
* A lack of confidence in themselves among ethnic minority staff.
These barriers were derived from
attitudinal or cultural stereotypes which limited expectations and opportunities
on both sides.
Excerpt from chapter 9 - Price,
A. J. (1997) Human Resource Management in a Business Context, 1st edition. The third edition (2007)
contains a revised and updated version of this excerpt.
